Universal Chemical Processor with Radioisotope Source

ABSTRACT

A universal chemical processor (UCP) including a reactor vessel having a central longitudinal axis and main chamber comprises a first inlet port for a main feedstock, a second inlet port for a fluidizing medium and a third inlet port for one or more reactants. The UCP also includes a reactive radioactive chemical processor (R 2 CP) that contains a radioactive element positioned extending along the longitudinal axis in the main chamber. In operation, a fluidized bed can be supported in the main chamber when a fluidizing medium and feedstock are supplied to the main chamber through the first and second inlet ports and the radioactive element of the R 2 CP emits ionizing radiation that is capable of ionizing feedstock and reactants, inducing chemical reactions, and sterilizing and decomposing any organic materials within a radiation zone.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present disclosure is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 17/508,469 (Attorney Docket No.02525/010125-US0)(the ′469 application). This application and the ′469application relate to commonly-owned U.S. patent application Ser. No.17/508,427 (Attorney Docket No. 02525/010124-US0 entitled “FLUIDIZED BEDCONCENTRATOR”) and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 17/508,498 (AttorneyDocket No. 02525/010126-US0 entitled “Advanced Beneficiation Process forBeneficiation, Mobilization, Extraction, Separation, and Concentrationof Mineralogical Resources”).

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present disclosure relates to chemical engineering, and inparticular relates to a method and apparatus for inducing a wide varietyof chemical reactions and processes with lower cost and reducing oreliminating pollution.

Definitions

Acid Mine Waste: Sometimes also referred to as Acid Mine Water,abbreviated as AMW in both cases. This is ground water that has beencontaminated either by run off from a mine or by acidic beneficiationprocesses in mining operations. This liquid is highly contaminated by awide variety of chemicals and represents a significant source ofpollution.

Actinides: Chemical elements occupying atomic number positions 89through 103 on the periodic table that are naturally radioactive tovarying extents. For the purposes of this document, Radium, atomicnumber 88, and Promethium, while technically a Lanthanide, which is alsoa naturally radioactive element, atomic number 61, are included with theActinides. It is noted that in many cases, these elements are foundtogether in varying ratios, thus complicating subsequent separationprocesses.

Beneficiation: A process or group of processes that enhance theproperties of mineralogical or metallurgical resources to a productsuitable for commercial and industrial purposes.

Concentration: A chemical or mechanical process that increases thepercentage of an element or compound in a medium by removing thepresence of other, undesirable elements or compounds in the medium.

Drier: In the context of this document, the term of art, “Drier” refersto a means of applying thermal energy into a chemical process to removewater or other undesired liquid content from said chemicals. It is notedthat the physical components of the drier can also have other functionsin a given system so long as appropriate considerations for properoperation are observed.

Dry Chemistry: The term “dry chemistry” as used herein refers to thoseprocesses that occur plasmas rather than solutions. They produce fewerpollutants and the remediation is far simpler. It can also be used torefer to other mineralogical beneficiation processes such as crushing,grinding, screening and sorting, which also do not run in liquid bathsor produce substantial quantities of pollutants from their operation.

Electromagnetic field: for ease of description, when the term“electromagnetic field” is used alone herein, it means either anelectric field alone (E), a magnetic field alone (H), an electrostaticfield, or a combination of the above.

Extraction: A chemical process or group of processes that are designedto isolate a specific element or compound from a surrounding matrix.

Feedstock: starting material input to a system which is to be intendedto be modified (e.g., separated, chemically altered, decomposed,sterilized) by processes performed by the system. The feedstock cancomprise granular solids, liquids, gases or plasma.

Field Enhancement: In the context of this document, the term of art,“Field Enhancement”, and its derivatives refer where the presence ofsuch fields enhances some aspect of the reactions carried on within agiven apparatus which occur in the presence of intentionally appliedelectric and magnetic fields.

Flash X-ray Irradiator: A cylindrical large area X-ray source capable ofextremely high radiation levels for the purposes of decomposing,sterilizing, or reacting materials within its interior reaction zone.The Flash X-ray Irradiator is the predecessor technology to the RXCP andis described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,019,047 “Flash X-ray Irradiator”(hereinafter ′047 patent or FXI). The ′047 patent is hereby incorporatedby reference in its entirety for any purpose.

Flocculation: A chemical process in which a chemical coagulant is addedto a bath and acts to facilitate bonding between particles, creatinglarger aggregates which are easier to separate. The particles come outof suspension in the form of floc or flake (synonymous terms of art).The action differs from precipitation in that, prior to flocculation,particles are merely suspended, in the form of a stable dispersion in aliquid and are not truly dissolved in solution.

Flotation: A chemical process in which a solution containing one or moredesired chemical compounds or elements is mixed with a chemical bath ofa specific pH and composition in order to cause the desired chemicalcompounds or elements rise to the surface where they can be removed by askimmer or similar apparatus. After flotation, the desired compounds orelements are washed and dried, or sometimes subject to additional wetprocesses to extract the desired compound or element.

Fluidized Bed: A physical phenomenon that occurs when a fluid (liquid,gas, or plasma) entrains a quantity of a granular solid medium (usuallypresent in a holding vessel) under appropriate conditions to generate agranular solid/fluid mixture that behaves as a fluid, referred to asfluidization of the particulate medium. This is usually achieved by theintroduction of pressurized fluid, gas, or plasma, through theparticulate medium. This resulting sold/fluid mixture has manyproperties and characteristics of normal fluids, such as the ability tofree-flow under gravity, or to be pumped using fluid type technologies.Fluidized beds are used to facilitate chemical reactions and can also beused to separate materials based on density and particle size.

Fluidized Bed Concentrator: A mechanical apparatus that utilizes aspectsof fluidized bed technology to achieve physical separation of afeedstock on the basis of particle size, density or fluidizing mediumpressure. Also referred to as FB Concentrator or FB Separator

Fluidizing Medium: A granular solid, liquid, gas or plasma which isinjected into a Fluidized bed to effect fluidization of the bed medium.

Fluorapatite: The ore from which some fertilizers, phosphoric acid,hydrofluoric acid and phosphogypsum are produced. Its chemical formulais Ca₅F(PO₄)₃. It is usually found in combination with Hydroxyapatite[Ca₅(PO₄)₃OH].

Ionizing Radiation: radiation consisting of particles, X-rays, or gammarays with sufficient energy to cause ionization in the medium throughwhich it passes.

Lanthanides: Chemical elements known as the Rare Earths and which occupyatomic number positions 57 to 71 on the periodic table, and Scandium,atomic number 21, and Yttrium, atomic number 39.

Leaching: A chemical process in which a feedstock is mixed with anotherchemical, typically, but not always a strong acid, base, bacteria, orsalt, in order to mobilize a desired chemical. The desired chemicalenters solution and is available for subsequent processing steps.

Ligand: A ligand is an ion or molecule that binds to a central atom toform a coordination complex. Ligands in a complex dictate the reactivityof the central atom, including ligand substitution rates, the reactivityof the ligands themselves, and redox. Ligand selection is a criticalconsideration in most reactions that involve them.

Mobilization: A chemical process which frees a desired element orcompound from a complex in a mineralogical resource to enable furtherbeneficiation.

Modulate: to adjust settings of analog equipment, such as analog valves,in a continuous manner (i.e., from fully closed, to partiallyclosed/open to fully open).

Phosphogypsum: A byproduct from the refining of Fluorapatite in theproduction of fertilizer, phosphoric acid, and Hydrofluoric Acid.Chemically, it is a hydrate of Calcium Sulfate (CaSO₄·2H₂O). Thismaterial also contains recoverable amounts of Rare Earths (Lanthanides)and some radioactive elements (Actinides).

Phosphoric Acid: The chemical H₃PO₄ is used in the production of somefertilizers and also used in many chemical reactions and in theproduction of some food products, cosmetics and toothpaste.

Plasma: Plasma is the fourth state of matter (other than solid, liquid,gas). It is characterized by having one or more of its electrons removedand it exhibits properties of both liquids and gases. Plasmas arecreated by a number of means including but not limited to DC excitation,RF (and microwave) excitation, and excitation by means of X-rays, gammarays and high energy secondary electrons. The current invention isprimarily concerned with the use of x-rays as the means of ionization.X-rays are particularly useful as they are at very high energies andthus a single photon can be used multiple times in a given reactionincluding the generation of high energy secondary electrons, which, bythemselves, are useful in stimulating reactions if of high enoughenergy. It is also the simplest means of achieving total ionization,which is a necessary condition for many of the reactions contemplated bythe current invention.

Precipitation: A chemical process in which a solution containing one ormore desired compounds or elements is mixed with a chemical bath of aspecific pH and composition in a container in order to cause the desiredchemical compounds or elements fall to the bottom of the container fromwhich they can be removed by any of several well-known means.

Rare Earths: The group of elements (atomic numbers 57 to 71) includingthe Lanthanides, Scandium, atomic number 21, and Yttrium, atomic number39.

Reactive X-ray Chemical Processor: A type of chemical processor designedto enhance reaction conditions by the use of X-ray radiation to ionizespecies present and promote reactions in a plasma environment. Thisprocessor is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 9,406,478 entitled “Method andApparatus for Inducing Chemical Reactions by X-ray Irradiation”(hereinafter ′478 Patent, and/or RXCP). The ′478 patent is herebyincorporated by reference in its entirety for any purpose.

Screening: The practice of mechanically separating granulated materialinto multiple grades by particle size using a screen. The screen is asurface with a dense uniform pattern of holes that allows particlessmaller than the size of the holes to pass through. Screening can beaccomplished using gravitational, vibrational, density, or electrostatictechniques. Separation: A chemical or mechanical process or group ofprocesses that are designed to isolate chemically similar compounds.

Settling (Sedimentation): A process similar to precipitation in whichthe desired compounds or elements fall out of a mixture in a containerover time (typically due to gravity) but without use of additionalchemicals. The desired compounds or elements and then can be collectedfrom the container by well-known means.

Sieving: A subset of screening that is a laboratory procedure in whichprecision screens are used to sort material based on particle size. TheAmerican Society for the Testing of Materials (ASTM) defines screensizes. These are usually expressed as “mesh” i.e. 200 mesh, 50 mesh,etc.

Stack: Phosphogypsum is normally stored outdoors in a very large pilecalled a “Stack”. Stacks are frequently dozens of acres in sizes and canbe hundreds of feet high.

Tailings: Material left over from beneficiation processes of miningoperations.

Thickening: As the name implies, thickening is the process where theviscosity of a solution, liquid, slurry, etc. is increased. Somechemical processes work well with low viscosities while others requirehigh viscosities. Thickening provides reliable methods of controllingthe viscosity of materials during various stages of processing.

Wet Chemistry: The term “wet chemistry” as used herein refers to thosechemical processes that are conducted in a liquid medium and state. Asused in the processing of mineralogical ores, tailings, waste productsand byproducts, it generally refers to processes that utilize quantitiesof strong acids, strong bases, amines and biologicals. Wet processes aretypically heavily pollution and there remediation is expensive.

BACKGROUND

In many industrial applications, it is necessary to react differentchemicals and sometimes to separate them based on chemistry, particlesize or density. These processes are traditionally carried out using wetchemistry, frequently involving toxic and polluting chemicals andproducing contaminated waste streams and byproducts in addition to thedesired end product.

For example, in the mining industry, in order to extract useful mineralresources from the mineral ores, mining operations employ variousbeneficiation processes to chemically and mechanically separate thedesired minerals and elements from others present in the ore. Theseprocesses involved include, but are not limited to, leaching, stripping,precipitation, settling, flotation, sedimentation, flocculation,concentrating, mobilization, screening, and thickening. These processesare sometimes referred to as “wet” processes.

Most often, these processes are based on large scale liquid chemistryoperations (e.g., in large liquid baths, tanks or ponds) that use toxicand highly polluting chemicals such as strong acids (sulfuric, nitric,hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, etc.), strong alkalines (Caustic Soda(NaOH), Quicklime (CaO), Ammonia (NH₃), Soda Ash (Na₂CO₃), Limestone(CaCO₃), to name a few), concentrated salts (potassium chloride, etc.),various amines and others. While these chemicals can be efficient inproducing the desired chemical reactions, during the beneficiationprocesses the liquids become highly contaminated and are extremelydifficult to dispose of in an environmentally sound fashion.

Due to the environmental problems pertaining to wet chemical processes,certain processing activities are no longer, or rarely, performed in theUnited States, such as Rare Earth processing. Despite the criticalimportance of the Rare Earth minerals to high technology manufacturing,the United States largely relinquished its globally dominant position inthe mining and Rare Earth processing in the 1980's as it proved toodifficult and expensive to beneficiate materials containing Rare Earthswhile maintaining compliance with the governing environmentalregulations. China, which has large deposits of Rare Earth minerals, andfewer restrictive environmental regulations, thereafter became thelargest processor of Rare Earths. Globally, many companies withsignificant Rare Earth resources send mined ore China and one or twoother countries for processing in order to avoid processing thematerials locally and dealing with the toxic byproducts of thatactivity.

It is only in recent years that an awareness of the need for the UnitedStates to return to its position of self-sufficiency in this market. Butthe state of the art for Rare Earth beneficiation remains the wetchemical processes that are still encumbered with the same set ofenvironmental problems. There is therefore a substantial need forimproved process technology, particularly for Rare Earth minerals.

SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE

In a first aspect, the present disclosure provides a universal chemicalprocessor (UCP) including a reactor vessel having a central longitudinalaxis and main chamber comprises a first inlet port for a main feedstock,a second inlet port for a fluidizing medium and a third inlet port forone or more reactants. The UCP also includes a reactive radioactivechemical processor (R²CP) that contains a radioactive element positionedextending along the longitudinal axis in the main chamber. In operation,a fluidized bed can be supported in the main chamber when a fluidizingmedium and feedstock are supplied to the main chamber through the firstand second inlet ports and the radioactive element of the R²CP emitsionizing radiation that is capable of ionizing feedstock and reactants,inducing chemical reactions, and sterilizing and decomposing any organicmaterials within a radiation zone, said processes being availableindividually, or in various combinations.

In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method of chemicalprocessing that comprises the steps of configuring a reactor vessel forreceiving feedstock, a fluidizing medium and reactants and forsupporting a fluidized bed and situating a radioactive element withinthe vessel that is operative to emit ionizing radiation in a radiationzone within the vessel.

The fluidized bed can be used for both typical fluidized bed reactivechemical operations as well as separation processes. The fluidized bedcan be used separately from, or in conjunction with the RXCP, and theRXCP can be used separately, from, or in conjunction with the fluidizedbed.

Numerous additional inventive aspects of the present disclosure aredescribed in the detailed description below.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of the UniversalChemical Processor (UCP) according to the present disclosure.

FIG. 2 is a simplified, schematic cross-sectional view of a UCPaccording to an embodiment of the present disclosure showing anexemplary electrode configuration for plasma enhanced Fluidized Bedwithout X-ray.

FIG. 3 is a simplified, schematic cross-sectional view of a UCP planaccording to an embodiment of the present disclosure showing anexemplary Reactant Injector modified for use as a feedstock injector forfluidized bed operation

FIG. 4 . is a simplified, schematic cross-sectional view of a UCPaccording to an embodiment of the present disclosure showing anexemplary arrangement of catalysts in the UCP.

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram showing an embodiment of a systemincluding the UCP and a control system according to the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view of a UCP according to an embodiment ofthe present disclosure in which plasma generated in the UCP are confinedusing electrostatic field enhancement.

FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional view of a UCP according to an embodiment ofthe present disclosure in which plasma generated in the UCP are confinedusing electromagnetic field enhancement.

FIG. 8 is a schematic cross-sectional view showing a first stage of aseparation process according to the present disclosure using thefluidized bed operation of the UCP.

FIG. 9 is a schematic cross-sectional view showing a second stage of aseparation process according to the present disclosure using thefluidized bed operation of the UCP.

FIG. 10 is a schematic cross-sectional view showing a third stage of aseparation process according to the present disclosure using thefluidized bed operation of the UCP.

FIG. 11 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a UCP according anembodiment of the present disclosure having a heating/electrode element.

FIG. 12 is a longitudinal cross-section view of another embodiment ofthe RXCP/FXI portion of the UCP, referred to as the R²CP, in which acentrally located radioisotope is used as a source of ionizationradiation instead of an electrically-powered electron gun.

FIG. 13 is another longitudinal view of the R²CP showing a removableportion of the biological radiation shield being removable to allowreplacement of the radioactive central element when it needs to bechanged.

FIG. 14 shows a cross-sectional view of a different configuration of theR²CP where the radioactive element is disposed uniformly around theouter surface of the reaction zone. When the radiation penetrates thewall of the reaction zone, it generates additional x-rays and secondaryelectrons in a fashion similar to the FXI, RXCP, and UCP.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

As noted previously, the current practice of the mining industryperforms beneficiation using “wet” processes such as Leaching,Flotation, Precipitation, Flocculation, and Settling. These processestypically require large quantities of strong acids (typically sulfuric(H₂SO₄), nitric (HNO₃), hydrochloric (HCl), hydrofluoric (HF), etc.),strong alkalines (Caustic Soda (NaOH), Quicklime (CaO), Ammonia (NH₃),Soda Ash (Na₂CO₃), Limestone (CaCO₃), to name a few), bacteria, or othersalt solutions. At the conclusion of these processes, there is a largequantity of these chemicals left over that is contaminated by a widearray of toxic chemicals which represent a significant pollution threat.It is costly to remediate this waste material, adding to the overallcost of the resulting products. Additionally, beneficiation operationsoften produce large quantities of contaminated process water whichcannot be released without a significant amount of treatment. In sum,the separation and related processes performed by the mining industryare responsible for the generation of a substantial portion of the toxicwaste produced by the mining industries, and replacement with apollution-free alternative would resolve a long-sought problem.

The present disclosure provides a method and apparatus for chemicalprocessing. In a preferred embodiment, the apparatus for chemicalprocessing, referred to as a Universal Chemical Processor (UCP) includesa fluidized bed reactor integrated into a Reactive X-ray ChemicalProcessor (RXCP). The RXCP, in some operational configurations, can beoperated as a Flash X-ray Irradiator (FXI). The UCP can includesadditional components for drying and electromagnetic field enhancement.Electromagnetic field enhancement includes using electric, electrostaticand magnetic fields to affect chemical reactions in the UCP via variousmodes of operation. The UCP thus combines aspects of both fluidized bed,X-ray or Gamma irradiation and other technologies to achieve a sum thatis greater than the parts, and to enable plasma-based processing regimeswhich were previously not available. The fluidized bed is capable ofoperating as a reactive chemical processor as well as being able toperform separations on a purely mechanical basis by changing operationalcontrol parameters. Individually, each component is capable of a certainrange of operations. When combined, in addition to the individualoperations, the method and apparatus of the present disclosure enablesan unanticipated reduction in process steps and physical plant equipmentas a direct result of the combining of multiple individual stages andoperations, as discussed below. The present disclosure provides severalexemplary processes that can be implemented with the UCP, all of whichconstitute improvements over traditional approaches directly due to theunique architecture of the UCP. In further embodiments, the presentdisclosure provides apparatuses for chemical processing, decompositionand sterilization that uses a radioisotope source.

FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of the UCP accordingto the present disclosure. The UCP 100 comprises a generally cylindricalor columnar vessel 105 in this case having a vertical, longitudinalcentral axis. It is noted that the UCP can be oriented differently andcan have a horizontal or tilted longitudinal axis, although forfluidized bed operations, in most cases, the vertical orientation ispreferred. At a base 108 of the vessel 105, which is the lower part asshown in FIG. 1 , several input ports are situated that can be welded,molded or fitted to the vessel 105 as known in the art. In theembodiment shown, a feedstock inlet port 110 is coupled to the base 108of the vessel and provides a conduit through which a feedstock isdelivered into the vessel. As the feedstock typically has a largerdiameter than other introduced materials, the diameter of the feedstockinlet port 110 has a corresponding size to accommodate the feedstockproduct. The feedstock comprises a granular solid, liquid, gas, orplasma material which is intended to be processed in the vessel in somemanner. For example, the feedstock can be introduced into the vessel inorder to undergo one or more chemical reactions, to separate out thecomponents of the feedstock fluid, for reactive chemical processing,catalytic cracking, combustion, heat or mass transfer, productseparation, or interface modification (e.g., applying a coating ontosolid items). In one advantageous implementation, the feedstock isPhosphogypsum from a waste storage stack, which is a byproduct offertilizer production, which can include a large number of contaminantsincluding Rare Earths and radioactive elements. The feedstock can bedelivered into the feedstock inlet port 110 continuously or in batches(referred to as batch mode), and the contaminants can be separated outfor further processing or for use as is. The feedstock can also bedelivered using other ports such as the reactant injector ports.

A fluidizing medium inlet port 112 is positioned adjacent to thefeedstock input port at the base 108. A fluidizing medium is deliveredinto the vessel 105, typically at higher than atmospheric pressure,through the fluidizing medium inlet port 112. The fluidizing medium isintroduced under pressure across the bottom of the reactor. Thefluidizing medium can comprise a uniform gas such as compressed air, ora uniform liquid such as water. Alternatively, the fluidizing medium caninclude a mix of gases, plasma, or liquids. A wide range of liquids andgases can be used depending on the intended process. As an example,nitrogen or argon can be used as the fluidizing medium in lieu ofcompressed air if the material being processed (e.g., separated) can beadversely affected by the present of oxygen. Various plasmas may be usedas well with the effect of causing additional reactions to occur. Thechoice of fluidizing medium is dependent on the desired end product.Preferably, the fluidizing medium port and injector is shielded againstX-ray irradiation. The shielding can be implemented by forming the inletport using concentric pipes layered with filler material composed atleast in part of a material resistant to X-ray radiation such as lead.An isolation valve (not shown in FIG. 1 for clarity) can be coupled tothe fluidizing medium inlet port 112 open, close or modulate the flow ofthe fluidizing medium when not needed.

In addition to the feedstock and the fluidizing medium, additionalreactants for promoting one or more chemical reactions, heat transfer,catalysis or otherwise can be introduced into the vessel via one or morereactant inlet ports 114 also situated at the base 108. Like thefluidizing medium port, the reactant inlet port 114 is preferablyshielded against X-ray irradiation. In one embodiment, the reactantinlet port is surrounded by a shield 117 that can be formed ofconcentric pipes with filler material between the concentric pipescomposed at least in part of a material resistant to X-ray radiationsuch as lead. The outer pipe should be constructed of a material thatwill not react with the other materials present in the reaction zonesuch as 316 steel or titanium. In the depicted embodiment, unlike thefeedstock and fluidizing medium inlet ports 110, 112, reactant inletport does not deliver reactants into the base of the vessel, but ratherthe reactant inlet port leads to a reactant injector 125 having aplurality of outlet nozzles e.g., 127 positioned at various heights inthe vessel. The shield 117 allows reactants to be introduced withouttheir being ionized until they are in the reaction chamber 135 and areintroduced into the reaction zone in a uniform fashion. In someimplementations (not depicted), the feedstock inlet port 112 can beconfigured similarly to the reactant inlet port to introduce materialinto the middle of the chamber 135, preferably with fewer nozzles, eachnozzle having a larger diameter than those of the reactant inlet nozzle.

FIG. 2 is a schematic cross-sectional view of an embodiment of a UCPshowing an insulated reactant inlet injector 205 that can be coupled tothe housing of the UCP with an insulated feedthrough 208, which can bemade from ceramic material. The injector 205 is a shielded conduit thatextends longitudinally into the main chamber 215 of the UCP. Reactanttransported through the reactant injector exit in the reaction zonewithin the main chamber through the plurality of nozzles e.g., 212, 214,216. FIG. 3 is a schematic cross-sectional view of an embodiment thatincludes a shielded injector 305 adapted for feedstock delivery thatalso extends longitudinally into the main chamber 315 of the UCP. Incontrast to the embodiment shown in FIG. 2 , materials transportedthrough shielded injector 305 exit through a single large nozzle 320into the reaction zone within the main chamber of the UCP.

In some embodiments, the UCP includes an electrode within the mainchamber 135 that is adapted to either generate a plasma or anelectromagnetic field within the main chamber or to maintain a plasmathat has been input to the vessel. The plasma can be used to inducechemical reactions in the fluidized bed and to [any other effects oruses of plasma. In FIG. 2 , an electrode 220 in the shape of a rod thatextends through the reaction zone in the main chamber 135 is shown. Theelectrode is coupled to a power supply (not shown) via an insulatedfeedthrough 225 which can also be made from a ceramic material. Thepower supply may be AC, DC, or RF, depending on the particular type ofplasma, electromagnetic field and biasing that is desired. The voltageof the electrode can range from as little as 2-20 Volts up to manyKiloVolts depending on a number of factors including the density of theplasma, the composition and density of the feedstock and reactants inthe reaction zone, and the pressure of the plasma. Essential to thesuccessful implementation of the plasma or field enhancement is thatattention be paid to the voltage ratings of the insulators, and to theshape and spacing of the electrode structures from the wall or othergrounded objects such as catalysts, etc.

It is desirable to keep the plasma from touching the walls of the UCPreaction zone, which is referred to as “containment.” This may beaccomplished by use of either electrostatic or electromagnetic means. Inthe preferred electrostatic embodiment, a plasma can be generatedwithout use of X-rays by internal electrostatic fields as shown in FIG.6 (discussed below) in which electrodes similar to the electrode 220shown in FIG. 2 are employed. In other embodiments, externalelectromagnetic coils can be used to create a magnetic field within theRXCP reaction zone area as shown in FIG. 7 (discussed below). There aremany field configurations, both electrostatic and electromagnetic thatwill work to provide the desired isolation of the plasma from thechamber wall. These will be apparent to the person of ordinary skill inthese arts.

Returning to FIG. 1 , ports 118, 180 at the input and output ends of theUCP lead to mass spectrometers. This allows a real-time analysis of thefeedstock material both before and after its being processed by the UCP.The fluidizing medium and feedstock supplied into the vessel combine andare forced through a diffuser plate 120 positioned above but proximallyto the base of the vessel. The diffuser plate 120 can be made from avariety of radiation resistant materials, so long as they areappropriately porous. Alternatively, the diffuser plate can have auniform pattern of holes to achieve the same effect. The diffuser plate120 has the effect of distributing and increasing the uniformity of thefluidizing medium as it enters the main chamber 135 of vessel at whichseparations and/or other processes take place (referred to as the“separation region” when the fluidized bed is being operated to separatefeedstock materials). A recirculating pipe 138 takes the flow of thefluidizing medium from the top of the chamber, runs it through arecirculating pump, and reapplies it to the bottom of the chamber via arecirculation loop (not shown in FIG. 1 ), mixing it with the incomingfluidizing medium.

In some implementations, catalysts may be located above the diffuserplate. However, more generally, catalysts can be located in differentlocations within the reaction zone; different locations providedifferent chemical results in the output. For example, in some cases itis desirable to have the catalyst at the beginning of the reaction zone,as shown in FIG. 4 , but catalysts also be positioned centrally, nearthe top end of the reaction zone, or outside the reaction zone entirely.The location depends on the degree of catalysis desired. While catalystscome in many forms, for clarity, their implementation as one or morescreens is shown in FIG. 4 . In this exemplary embodiment, two catalystscreens 404, 408 are positioned above a diffuser plate 410 and below thelower limit of the reaction zone 414 in the main chamber of the UCP (thereaction zone is explained with reference to the RXCP section the UCPbelow). It is noted that while two screens 404, 408 are depicted therecan be a single screen or a larger number of similar screens. The screenimplementation is one common method of introducing the catalyst intoreactions generated in the UCP. Other forms of introducing catalystsinclude plates, trays, meshes and various types of porous containers. Insome implementations the diffuser plate 410 can be used to carry thecatalyst. Introduction of other forms of catalysts will be apparent to aperson of ordinary skill in this area.

In some embodiments, a specific category of catalysts known aselectrocatalysts can be used in the beneficiation process.Electrocatalysts function at electrode surfaces or, most commonly, canbe incorporated in the electrode surface itself. An electrocatalyst canbe heterogeneous such as a platinized electrode. This is achieved bymounting the catalyst on an electrically insulated structure (not shown)and providing an electrically insulated electrical feedthrough to allowa voltage or signal to bias the catalyst, thus creating anelectrocatalyst. Homogeneous electrocatalysts, which are soluble assistin transferring electrons between the electrode and reactants, and/orfacilitate an intermediate chemical transformation described by anoverall half reaction. Homogenous electrocatalysts can be employed forcertain types of reactions, but are not appropriate for all reactions,as they can suffer from physical instability and solubility.Electrocatalytic action can be stimulated either by a direct electricalconnection or by interaction with electric fields within the reactorvessel.

The feedstock material becomes entrained in the fluidizing medium in themain chamber 135 and the resulting combination of granular solid andfluid (including gases and plasmas) behaves as a fluid (i.e., undergoesfluidization) under certain controlled conditions. Fluidization occurswhen various factors and parameters, including the dimensions of thevessel, the pressure drop across the bed, the average particle density,feedstock, and reactant flow rates, and other factors (discussed below)have magnitudes that are designed to cause the feedstock and fluidmixture to behave as a fluid. In the depicted embodiment, this isachieved by the introduction of pressurized fluidized medium through theparticulate medium at the base of the vessel of an appropriate diameter.The combined granular solid/fluid medium, referred to as the fluidizedbed, is a suspension, and has many of the properties of normal fluids,such as the ability to free-flow under gravity, or to be pumped usingfluid-type technologies. It is this aspect of fluidized beds that allowshorizontal operation. A recirculation pipe 138 receives the pressurizedfluidizing medium the top of the chamber, applies pressure to thefluidizing medium via a pump 161 medium and reapplies the fluidizingmedium at the bottom of the chamber at a reentry port 163, mixing itwith the incoming fluidizing medium. As noted above, additionalfluidizing medium incoming from inlet port 112 can be cut off when needvia isolation valve (not shown in FIG. 1 ). However, additionalfluidizing medium is typically need to offset volume loss and maintainconstant pressure within the FB concentrator as product is removed.

Within the chamber 135, the upper surface of the bed is relativelyhorizontal but can be wave-like in nature, which is analogous tohydrostatic behavior. The bed can be considered to be a heterogeneousmixture of fluid and granular solid that can be represented by a singlebulk density. Inside the fluidized bed, larger and denser particles tendto move downwards in the bed while smaller, lighter particles tend tomove upwards, exhibiting fluid behavior in accordance with Archimedes'principle. As the density (more precisely, the solid volume fraction ofthe suspension) of the bed can be altered by changing the fluidfraction, objects with different densities in comparison to the averagedensity of the bed can be caused to sink or float. The upwards force ofthe fluidizing medium is a strong contributor to the upward motion ofthe particles.

In fluidized beds, the contact of the solid particles with thefluidization medium is greatly enhanced when compared to packed beds.This behavior in fluidized combustion beds enables a high degree ofthermal transport inside the system and heat transfer between theparticles and the fluidizing medium. The enhanced heat transfer enablesthermal uniformity analogous to that of a well-mixed gas, and thefluidized bed can have a significant heat-capacity while maintaining ahomogeneous temperature field. As noted above, in a fluidized bed, thedenser materials tend to go to the bottom of the FB. It should be notedthat very small dense particles can move to the top of the FB. Thiscreates a need for a further separatory operation. This is due to asimple gravitationally induced process. As an example, if air is used asthe fluidizing medium, the flow upward through the bed of materialscauses the material in the bed to essentially float on the fluidizingmedium. When the material is floating, it means there is sufficientpressure to fluidize the whole column and push the lighter materialstowards the top of the column while the denser portions of the materialstay at or move to a lower elevation in the column.

The condition for fluidization can be presented by equation (1) below inwhich the apparent pressure drop multiplied by the cross-section area ofthe bed is equated to the force of the weight of the granular solidparticles (less the buoyancy of the granular solid in the fluid).

Δp _(w) =H _(w)(1−ε_(w))(ρ_(s)−ρ_(f))g=[M _(s)g/A][(ρ_(s)−ρ_(f))/ρ_(s)]  (1)

in which Δp_(w) is the bed pressure drop, H_(w) is the bed height, ε_(w)is the bed voidage, (i.e. the fraction of the bed volume that isoccupied by the fluid spaces between the particles), ρ_(s) is theapparent density of bed particles, ρ_(f) is the density of thefluidizing fluid, g is the acceleration due to gravity, M_(s) is thetotal mass of solids in the bed, and A is the cross-sectional area ofthe bed.

Additionally, the introduction of the fluidizing medium into mainchamber 135 has the effect of creating bubbles which form as a result ofphysical interactions with particles of the feedstock material andpressure differentials. In a physically small bed, the bubbles formedare small and sometimes microscopic. In a large-scale industrial bed,which can be ten to fifteen feet in diameter, the bubbles can be quitelarge. The bubbles increase the mixing of chemicals in the fluidizedbed. A means of venting the pressure (e.g., a relief valve) 138 isincluded at the top of the vessel to allow a constant differentialpressure environment to be maintained within the bed. Pressure relief ispreferably achieved by means of recirculating piping, particularly whenthe fluidizing medium is reused. When a given bubble or molecule of airreaches the upper region of the bed, velocity of the air suddenly dropsby almost factor of 10 due to the increase in diameter of the bed. Thismeans lighter (less dense) particles will collapse back into theturbulent region where they recirculate and eventually reach a height inthe bed that is stable, based on the particle size, density andfluidizing medium pressure. It is noted that fluidized beds can be runat atmospheric pressure, positive pressure, or under partial vacuum.

A variety of material mixtures can be separated using the fluidized bed.And as noted, gases, liquid, granular solids or mixed gases can beutilized as the fluidizing medium. Specific materials and fluidizingmeans are chosen as appropriate to the specific task at hand. Ifbatch-oriented processing is intended, the fluidized bed method canachieve high levels of separation by running the process for an extendedperiod of time. If, however, a continuous process is desired, such as istypically found in industrial scale applications, then the fluidized bedmay be modified to include means for continuously introducing a materialto be processed, and a means to remove the separated materials ofdiffering densities. Multiple stages comprising multiple fluidized bedsin distinct vessels may be required to achieve the desired degree ofprocessing and/or separation.

The separation processes performed by the fluidized bed is intended tobe a substitute for flotation, settling, some precipitation, andsedimentation processes typically found in industrial, mining, andlaboratory chemical processes. The most significant advantage is thatthe separation is performed without the use of large quantities of toxicand environmentally unsound chemicals. The separation proceeds due tothe properties of the fluidized bed, which thoroughly mixes thecomponent feedstock materials and effectively segregates the materialsby density over a period of time. The lower and upper outputs, 124, 128can have mass spectrometers or other analytical instruments connected tothem so that an online analysis of the separation streams can beperformed with the FB concentrator while operating.

FIGS. 8-10 show stages of an exemplary sequence of a separation processaccording to the present disclosure using the FB Concentrator functionof the UCP. In FIG. 8 , a feedstock containing mainly first and secondcomponents (components A and B) of different densities enter through thefeedstock inlet 810 into the main chamber 835 (separation zone) of theUCP in which a fluidized bed is maintained through the supply of thefluidizing medium through fluidizing medium inlet 812. In the exampleshown, component A is denser than component B. As shown in FIG. 8 , asthe feedstock material enters the main chamber 835, the feedstockmaterial initially diffuses out in a generally random fashion into thevolume of the chamber.

By the second stage shown in FIG. 9 , the feedstock material has spreadthroughout the volume of the fluidizing bed and has begun to separateout into a first partially separated mixture 820 located toward thebottom of the main chamber at which the denser component (A) isconcentrated at a higher level relative to the feedstock and into asecond region 825 located toward the top of the main chamber at whichthe less dense component (B) is concentrated at a higher level relativeto the feedstock. At the second stage shown in FIG. 9 , the separationprocess is in an early or intermediate point. A concentration gradienthas begun to form, but the components have not been completelyseparated.

At the third stage shown in FIG. 10 , components A and B have separatedmore fully and the regions 820 and 825 contain substantially onecomponent or the other (i.e., there is very little of component A inregion 925 and very little of component B in region 920). At this pointthe lower and upper outlet ports 140, 142 are opened to allow aseparated output. A fluid with a high concentration of component A flowsout of the vessel through the lower output 840, and a fluid with a highconcentration of component B fluid out of the vessel through the upperoutput 842. As noted above, the output streams at outlet ports 840, 842,while greatly concentrated relative to the input feedstock may not besufficiently concentrated for desired purposes and the outputs can beinput to further UCPs, fluidized bed concentrators or processing devicesto further separate out or otherwise process the components.Additionally, as noted above, the fluidizing medium is recirculated viarecirculation pipe 838 and pump 846 to maintain the volume and pressureof the fluidizing medium in the fluidized bed.

In one example, the UCP can be used to remove Actinide elements frommineralogical feedstock materials. The UCP can be operated in fluidizedbed mode (in one or more stages) to separate out relatively Actinidesfrom the feedstock such a Uranium, Radium, Thorium, etc. This enrichedoutput material can be dried using a microwave oven or other dryingapparatus. The relatively light materials output from the fluidized bedcan be to a UCP operating in RXCP mode in which the materials undergochemical reactions in the presence of ammonia (NH₃). This step replacesconventional wet leaching in the presence of manganese oxide (MnO₂). Theproducts of the reaction in RXCP mode can output to a further fluidizedbed stage which again separates the products according to density. Thedenser output from the second fluidized bed stage is typically enrichedin residual Actinides such as Radium. This additional output can bedried for convenient non-polluting removal.

The fluidized bed separation process can be enhanced by the use ofscreening both before and after the fluidized bed operation. Screeninginvolves mechanically separating granulated material into multiplegrades by particle size using a screen. Screening enables the number offluidized bed stages can be reduced, leading to additional improvementsin cost, footprint, safety and throughput.

In one important application, the fluidized bed can be used as a meansof separating materials on the basis of their density in thebeneficiation of Lanthanides and Actinides. Because there are nochemical reactions involved in the basic fluidizing bed separation, thefluidized bed can be implemented in a simpler manner than that usuallyfound in the chemical industry, for example the fluidized beds used inthe manufacture of polyethylene.

Historically, fluidized beds have been operated using granular solids,liquids, and gases. The current inventors have realized that it ispossible to also operate a fluidized bed using a plasma as thefluidizing medium in the bed or having a plasma in the presence ofanother fluidizing medium in the bed. There are examples of other plasmaprocesses where plasmas are flowed into a chamber at some rate toachieve a desired end result. One such example is the Plasma Wind Tunnelwhich is used to simulate re-entry of satellites into the atmosphere andthe plasma conditions that they are subject to in that circumstance toverify that the satellite will burn up upon re-entry. The presentinvention brings a plasma, which in many ways behaves as a gas, into thechamber through the appropriate inlet port 114, and paying attention tonot grounding out the electrical charge of the plasma by providing aninsulating means to keep the plasma isolated from ground. The plasma,once inside the reactor, behaves much as a gas would, but also behavesas it does in the RXCP mode. The impact of this is substantiallyincreased reaction rates and reduced residence times in the reactor.

It may be desirable to include insulated electrodes that can have a biasvoltage applied to them to maintain the plasma or electromagnetic fieldin the fluidized bed when there is no X-ray present. This may beaccomplished by means of a separate electrode in the reaction zone 170or by using the outer shell of the reactant injectors as the electrodeand providing an insulation means for the reactant injectors where theyenter the reactor to keep them isolated and above ground potential.Different electrode configurations are shown in FIG. 5 .

Returning again to FIG. 1 , when the feedstock material is separated bydensity, lighter components are removed via an upper output port 140 (ora plurality of such ports) positioned at or near the top of the mainchamber 135 and heavier components are removed from a lower output port142 (or plurality of such ports) positioned toward the bottom of themain chamber above the diffuser plate 120. The height of the port andparticle size density determines the density of the material beingremoved. The separated material is pushed out of the fluidized bedthrough the output ports 140, 142 by the internal pressure within thebed. The output ports 140, 142 are connected to subsequent portions ofthe process which can vary widely depending on the material beingprocessed. In addition, there is a main output port 145 positioned atthe top of the reactor for non-FB processes such as chemical production.

The fluidized bed of the present disclosure is intended to be asubstitute for flotation, settling, some precipitation, andsedimentation processes typically found in industrial, mining, andlaboratory chemical processes. The most significant advantage is thatthe separation is performed without the use of large quantities of toxicand environmentally unsound chemicals. The separation proceeds due tothe properties of the fluidized bed, which thoroughly mixes thecomponent feedstock materials and then effectively segregates thematerials by density over time.

It is noted that the UCP can be operated as a fluidized bed alone or inconjunction with the Reactive X-ray Chemical Processor (RXCP)plasma-generating processes, field-enhancement and drying. The fluidizedbed, plasma-generation, field-enhancement can be employed simultaneouslyin a UCP vessel or sequentially in various combinations, either in thesame unit in a batch processing environment, or in separate units in acontinuous processing environment.

In FIG. 1 the middle section of the UCP includes elements of a ReactiveX-ray Chemical Processor (RXCP) that can totally or partially ionize (toany desired state) chemical reactants introduced into the vessel.Embodiments of a standalone Reactive X-ray Chemical Processor (RXCP) aredisclosed in commonly owned and assigned U.S. Pat. No. 9,406,478,entitled “Method and Apparatus for Inducing Chemical Reactions by X-rayIrradiation.” These capabilities are further enhanced by the addition ofboth electromagnetic and electrostatic field sources which provide theability to conduct reactions under the influence of these fields whichwill enhance certain reactions. Additionally, the UCP can include adrier for removing water or other undesired liquid content from inputsor reaction products.

The basic process of the RXCP section starts with the total or partialionization of all or part of the feedstock reactant which is inputthrough a feedstock inlet 110, and all other reactants, input throughone or more radiation-shielded reactant injectors 114, 116. This causesthe feedstock and reactants to be rendered into a plasma. This is thenfollowed by recombination of the resulting mix of atomic species intotheir lowest energy states. The ionized feedstock and reactants withinthe reactor are rendered into a plasma state. The resulting mix ofatomic species produces an output flow. The RXCP section uses acylindrical cold field emission hollow cathode 150, a hollow grid 155,and a hollow anode 160 transmission-type X-ray source in conjunctionwith reactant measuring, control, and injection systems (not shown inFIG. 1 ) located in the central region of the device. The cold fieldemission cathode 150, a grid 155 that together comprise an electron gun.The structure of the transmission x-ray tube starts with a hollowcathode 150 within which there is a coaxially oriented hollow grid 155,within which there is a coaxially oriented hollow anode 160, allarranged such that their central axes are coincident. The electron gunof the RXCP can achieve a theoretical maximum current density ofapproximately 80,000 Amps/cm² in the pulse mode, which ultimately allowshigh levels of irradiation due to the high fluence created by the largenumber of electrons used to create the X-ray beam. In practicalapplications, the cathode 150 is not loaded to its theoretical maximum,but rather to some lesser value. For instance, the RXCP section of theUCP can achieve high X-ray photon energies of typically 0.025-5 MeV, anda high beam current that can typically range from KiloAmps to manyMegaAmps. The RXCP section can operate at lower current levels, whichare dependent on the fluence requirements of the specific reaction. Itis noted that the embodiments that utilize a radioactive source (R²CP)described below can achieve similar current densities, photon energies,beam current and fluence.

In operation, the cathode 150 is charged using a power supply (not shownin FIG. 1 ) which meets the voltage, current, and, if used in the pulsemode, risetime and pulse repetition-rate requirements. A bias resistor(also not shown) is connected between the cathode 150 and the grid 155and is used to create a voltage on the grid 155 so that the tube isnormally in a standoff condition (not conducting). When a control signalof ground potential is applied to the grid 155, the grid releasescontrol of the cathode 160 and the cathode discharges. Electrons thentravel from the cathode 150 to the anode 160. When they strike the anode160, they generate X-radiation and secondary electrons. The X-rays andsecondary electrons are liberated from an X-ray emitting (inner) surfaceof the anode 160 in an isotropic fashion. Due to the relatively thinwall of the hollow anode 160, a substantial portion of the x-rays andsecondary electrons generated (about 50%) propagate into the centralregion of the hollow anode. The penetration depth of the incidentelectrons is controlled by the balance between the cathode voltage andthe thickness of the anode 160. The anode 160 typically has a thin wallsection in the region of the irradiation volume to achieve a degree ofcontrol over the desired transmitted irradiation. The anode wall sectionthickness is a function of the diameter of the interior space, thecathode voltage, and the atomic number (Z) of the anode. The secondaryelectrons released from the anode play an important role because theydramatically increase the number of potential reactions. Each liberatedsecondary electron can, in turn strike atoms within the anode, causingfurther X-ray emission and release of additional secondary electrons.This cascade effect of the secondary electrons helps ensure that arealistic energy balance can be achieved. Cathode voltage is suppliedthrough cathode electrically insulated vacuum feedthrough 162, and gridvoltage is supplied through grid electrically insulated vacuumfeedthrough 164. Both feedthroughs 162, 164 are electrically insulatedand high vacuum sealed, and penetrate the biological radiation shield165 and vessel housing.

Other radiation sources can be used instead of a cold cathode fieldemission X-ray source. An alternative is to use a plurality ofconventional X-ray sources. It is also possible to use a nuclearradioisotope source it has an appropriate gamma radiation output, andhalf-life. The entire UCP apparatus is surrounded by a radiation shield365 whose thickness is commensurate with the X-ray (or gamma) energiesgenerated.

The X-rays generated by the RXCP section enter the central portion ofthe main chamber 135 in what is termed as a radiation zone 170 which isspatially delimited within the vessel by a lower limit 185 and upperlimit 187. Within the radiation zone, compounds and atoms preset arepartially or totally ionized into the constituent molecules into ions ofthe atomic species present by the mixture of X-ray photons and secondaryelectrons formed by the gun and other collisional interactions withinthe reaction zone. Concurrently and synchronously with this, secondary,tertiary and additional reactants can be injected into the reactionspace and totally ionized, either simultaneously or sequentially. Thereis significant intentional turbulence in the radiation zone to ensurecomplete mixing and interaction of any ions, electrons, atoms, andmolecules. It is possible and frequently necessary to include catalystsin the radiation zone to enhance specific properties of a reaction. Inmost cases this will be the lowest energy state compound unless specificmeasures are taken to change that. The natural tendency of this systemis to produce lowest energy state compounds. By adjusting the variousparameters, it is possible to determine exactly what molecules willemerge once recombination is allowed (by the cessation of the X-rayflux). A number of adjustable parameters are used to control the type ofreaction and the chemical reaction rates that take place. The adjustableparameters include: 1) X-ray voltage; X-ray current; X-ray pulseduration (in either pulse or continuous mode); Ratio of first and second(and subsequent, if any) reactants; Flow rates of reactants through thereactor, and Specific chemicals chosen as reactants; the use ofcatalysts, etc.

Reactants are introduced into the main chamber via shielded reactantinjector(s) 125 through which they enter the reaction zone of the mainchamber 135 through the shield reactant injector(s) 125. Althoughmultiple reactant injectors can be employed, multiple reactant speciescan be introduced through a single reactant injector. It is noted thatthe injection ports can be made large to allow for substantial amountsof reactant to flow into the radiation zone 170, as would be desirablefor some fluidized bed applications (See FIG. 3 ). The number ofinjection ports can be as low as desired.

To preserve the molecular structure of reactants prior to injection, itis necessary to provide an X-radiation shielded injection means. Thisprevents premature dissociation, or premature partial or totalionization, of the injected reactant prior to one or both ofintroduction of the feedstock material into the irradiation volume 170and introduction of reactant. The requirements for a shielded injectionmeans are preferably met by implementing the reactant conduit 125 usingconcentric pipes with an X-ray radiation shielding material 117, whichis typically lead or another high atomic number element, filling theinterstitial space between the concentric pipes. The pipes can be madeof stainless steel or some other non-reactive material that iscompatible with, and not affected by, the feedstock and reactants inputvia inlets 110, 114 or the radiation environment in irradiation volume170. The reactant inlet port 114 leads to a shielded reactant injector125, which is a generally cylindrical conduit having nozzles, e.g., 127.FIG. 1 also includes a plan (non-cutaway) view of another shieldedreactant injector (the UCP can include one, two or more shieldedreactant injectors) showing a distribution of nozzles positionedcircumferentially around the injector conduit, the number of reactantinjectors being dependent on the requirements of the intended reaction.

It is noted that additional electrodes, either in the form of discreteelectrodes or in the form of electrically insulated shielded reactantinjectors can be included here for plasma support and field enhancement,or external magnetic coils can be provided for plasma confinement orfield generation. It is possible to have both conditions supported, butsuch a configuration would be functionally redundant.

Both feedstock materials and reactants enter the main chamber 135 andare exposed to X-rays and secondary electrons. If a fluidized bed issimultaneously present, the fluid phase of the fluidized bed is alsopresent and exposed to X-rays. Reactants may vary over a wide range ofliquids, gases, plasma, and in some cases, granular solids as well. Theamounts of each reactant and the primary feedstock are metered usingmass flow controllers as developed by the semiconductor industry. Thesecontrollers allow delivery of highly exacting amounts of materials withliterally atomic levels of accuracy. This provides very precise controlof the stoichiometry of the reactions.

The operation of the fluidized bed can be enhanced by one of severalmeans in the UCP. First is by initiation of a plasma within thefluidized bed. This can be accomplished by one of several means. One isto turn on the X-ray emitter of the RXCP. This provides high energyradiation to ionize and enhance the reaction characteristics. A secondway is to apply a high voltage DC signal to the insulated electrodes(which can also function as a heater or drier). This produces a lowerenergy plasma than is generated using X-rays. A third way is to apply anRF signal, again either through the insulated electrodes. This producesa plasma with energy between that produced by X-ray and that produced byDC. The choice of ionization means would be dependent on the desired endresult from the resultant reaction. In this regard, it is noted thathigh temperature of the plasma generated in the reaction chamber can besufficient to cause various reactions by a roasting process as well.

Due to the highly reactive nature of the plasmas contemplated by thecurrent invention, it is desirable to provide a means to keep theplasmas away from the walls and injectors. There are three principlemeans to accomplish this: (1) electrostatically, which is the preferredembodiment (shown in FIG. 6 ); (2) electromagnetically (shown in FIG. 7): which is usable in some circumstances; and (3) using a physicalisolation barrier (not shown). Starting with the latter, a physicalisolation barrier involves placing a dielectric non-reactive insert intothe reaction zone that contains the plasma to a specific region whilestill allowing the injection of various reactants and also illuminationby both X-rays and secondary electrons.

FIG. 6 is a simplified cross-sectional view of an embodiment of a UCPthat employs electrostatic plasma confinement, often referred to asfield confinement or field enhancement, and is the preferred embodiment.In the embodiment shown, three equidistant electrodes 602, 604, 606 arepositioned within the working zone of the main chamber insider of theinner wall 610 of the RXCP, but just outside of the reaction zone. Theelectrodes 602, 604, 606 are configured to produce a uniform, generallycylindrical or spherical field within which the plasma reactions willoccur, referred to as a plasma confinement region 615. It is noted thatother field configurations are possible. It is further noted that it ispossible to utilize one or more of the reactant injectors as electrodesfor the electrostatic field generation.

FIG. 7 is a simplified cross-sectional view of an embodiment of a UCPthat employs electromagnetic plasma confinement. In the embodimentshown, four electromagnet coils 702, 704, 706, 708 are positioned arounda reaction zone. The activation voltage/current can be either direct(DC) or alternating (AC). When activated the electromagnet coils 702,704, 706, 708 generate the magnetic field illustrated by field lines712. The magnetic field confines plasma generated within reaction zoneby deflecting charged particles moving out of the confinement area(i.e., a current) back to the containment zone 715. It is noted thatother coil and electromagnetic field configurations are possible.

It is also desirable to be able to dry materials within the UCP. FIG. 11is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of a UCP having a drierelement. In the axial cross-sectional view shown there are severalconcentric cylindrical elements, listed in turn from outermost frominnermost: shielded housing 165; cathode 150, grid 155; anode 160 anddrier element 910. The drier element can comprise a generallycylindrical serpentine resistance heating element which is mounted onelectrical insulators 914, 918 just inside the inner wall of the hollowanode 160. The drier element 910 can also be used as an electrode forplasma initiation and maintenance by coupling the drier element to aswitching means external to the inner volume of the UCP.

An online analysis of the feedstock through the mass spectrometer inletport 118 is performed prior to processing. Following passage through thereactor, a second online chemical analysis is obtained by sampling theeffluent at a second mass spectrometer inlet 180 at the upper end of thechamber to ensure that the reactants have been reacted to the desiredstate. It is noted that additional reactants can be added in the correctratios in order to achieve a desired reactions and concentrations. Massflowmeters (not shown in FIG. 1 ) provide an instrumented dispensing andfeedback system for controlling the exact amounts of reactants suppliedto the system. By controlling these factors, along with the X-rayvoltage and current, it is possible to tune the system to produce a widerange of chemical outputs. A host computer (also not shown), equippedwith suitable processing, memory and communication resources is coupledto the supply inlets, flowmeters and mass spectrometer and combines allinformation sources and utilizes artificial intelligence-basedoperations to ensure that reactor parameters are always optimized forthe desired output product. The operation of the mass flow controllersis controlled by the host computer with inputs from residual gasanalyzers and other analytic instruments attached to the system thatmonitoring the input and output of the system.

The host computer is configured to compare the mass spectrometer datagenerated from feedstock input and output, among other data sources, andcompare the output data to a reference spectrum of a desired endproduct. Based on this analysis, the host computer determines whether toincrease, decrease, or maintain the same flow rate of reactants. Oncethese adjustments are made, the host computer iterates additionalanalyses to determine if the adjustments made bring the end productcloser to or further away from the desired end result product. Furtheradjustments can be made based on these iterations. The host computercontinues the iterations until the output has stabilized within setlower and upper bounds. If the resulting output product is determined tobe too far out of specification for the host computer to correct, thenit shuts the chemical processes down and issues a notification to anoperator. The host computer also monitors other critical functions forsafety purposes and will shut down the system if any of the monitoredparameters are out of specified range and thus presenting a safetyhazard.

As reactions occur in the main chamber 135, certain compoundsprecipitate out and are removed from the output of the system throughone of the output ports. After one or more iterations of this process,the effluent becomes free of unwanted chemical components and anybiological components. For example, when the UCP is used for treatmentof water, it decomposes any pharmaceutical or other complex organiccompounds such as pesticides that are present.

The RXCP section of the UCP can be operated as a Flash X-ray irradiator(FXI). In FXI mode, high-intensity x-radiation is applied to thereaction zone typically with reactant feeds switched off. In this mode,feedstock is generally input through the feedstock input port with theremaining ports switched off. However, in some circumstances, the otherinlet ports can be used to supply materials in the FXI mode. Dependingon the materials present in the reaction (radiation) zone,decomposition, and cross-linking are typical of reactions that can occurin this mode. In this context, decomposition refers to what happens tocomplex molecules when subjected to intense X-ray irradiation, in whichthe X-rays are substantially in excess of the K-edge binding energies ofthe individual elements involved. This particular process is useful whenorganic components are present and it is desired to have them removed.The intense X-ray irradiation in FXI mode destroys any organic material.and decomposes it to its constituent elements which then recombine totheir lowest energy state forms. Additionally, it is well known thationizing radiation (X-rays) are capable of initiating cross-linkingreactions in polymers and the like. By setting the correct operatingparameters, the FXI easily achieves this operating environment. Adetailed description of these processes and others is found incommonly-owned and assigned U.S. Pat. No. 8,019,047. For ease ofreference, in this application the component used to generate X-rays ineither the RXCP mode or the FXI is referred to as the RXCP.

To combine the fluidized bed and RXCP, certain modifications are made totake advantage of the fact that the RXCP typically incorporates acylindrical process section. One possible modification is to add aperforated bottom plate with a feed connection for the fluidizing means,and inlet and outlet ports in the sides of the reaction area if the UCPis mounted vertically, or a perforated bottom plate if horizontal.Depending on the specification composition of the material to beseparated, it may be desirable to incorporate a screening step eitherbefore or after the fluidized bed step, and external to the UCP, toincrease the efficiency of separation. It is noted that the location ofthe inlet and outlet ports is dependent on whether the UCP is to be usedin a batch or continuous mode, and whether it is to be used horizontallyor vertically. When the UCP is operated as a fluidized bed in thehorizontal position, it is necessary to relocate the diffuser andcatalysts to accommodate this orientation, as the diffuser needs to beat the bottom of the fluidized bed in order for the bed to operate. TheFXI functionality is achieved by turning off the reactant injectionmeans and just operating the X-ray generating section of the UCP (i.e.,the cathode, grid and anode). For the purposes of this application thebatch processing vertical mode is a preferred embodiment but horizontaloperation in the continuous mode is practical and can be employed inindustrial scale processes.

Regardless of which mode the UCP it is used in, there are certaincommonalities that are identified including the ability to operate inmultiple sequential modes, including but not limited to: i) FluidizedBed (FB) only; ii) RXCP only; iii) Flash X-ray only, full UC, whichincludes either iv) FB+RXCP; v) FB+RXCP+FXI; vi) FB+drying; vii)FB+RXCP+drying; viii) FB+RXCP+Field Enhancement; ix) RXCP+drying and x)RXCP+Field Enhancement. All of the above operating modes can beperformed in either continuous or batch mode. All of the above modes canbe performed with electromagnetic field enhancement, electrostatic fieldenhancement both enhancement techniques, and any of the above can beperformed in plasma or non-plasma environments as required. It is againnoted that the UCP mode includes the FXI capability by just switchingoff the reactants. Other FXI operations will also occur during thismode. The various combinations of process attainable will be apparent toa person of ordinary skill in the art. The R²CP described below can besubstituted for the RXCP in the above description of combinations.

Catalysts can be introduced into the UCP via the reactant feed toaccelerate chemical reactions, or they can be permanently mounted in thereaction zone. Catalysts are not consumed in the catalyzed reactionhence they are unchanged after the reaction. In many types of reactions,often only very small amounts of catalyst are required. Furthermore,some reactions can only occur in the presence of a catalyst. Operationsof the fluidized bed and RXCP (and FXI) can both be enhanced by the useof catalysts in certain situations. In general, chemical reactions occurfaster in the presence of a catalyst because the catalyst provides analternative reaction pathway or mechanism with a lower activation energythan the non-catalyzed mechanism. In catalyzed mechanisms, the catalystusually reacts to form an intermediate, which then regenerates theoriginal catalyst in the process. Many materials can function ascatalysts, ranging from inorganic compounds such as Titania (TitaniumDioxide (TiO₂)) or Manganese Dioxide(MnO₂) to complex organic compoundssuch as Wilkinson's catalyst, RhCl(PPh₃)₃. As an illustrative example,Wilkinson's catalyst loses one triphenylphosphine ligand before enteringthe true catalytic cycle. In general, ligands are viewed as electrondonors and the metals as electron acceptors, (i.e., respectively, Lewisbases and Lewis acids). In plasma chemistry, the use of ligands may beobviated due to the surplus electrons that can be generated. This doesnot apply to all reactions but can be a major cost saving factor insome.

In the case of the Fluidized bed portion of the UCP, the use ofcatalysts has been studied, and numerous reactive processes conducted inFluidized Beds are enabled by the presence of a catalyst. In the case ofthe RXCP section of the UCP, the introduction of a catalyst can be apivotal addition in enabling a reaction. The operating principle of theRXCP (and the FXI) is that following the ionization step in theseprocesses, the ions present will seek to immediately recombine intotheir lowest energy state as described above. By the introduction of acatalyst, this process can be altered to favor the formation of onecompound over another.

To achieve improved process results for some uses of the UCP, it isfrequently useful to perform pre-reaction filtration of the feedstockand reactant materials to remove as much particulate reactant matter aspossible to minimize the amounts of material the reactor has to process,and post-filtration to remove precipitated material. This can be done byany of a number of well-known processes including, but not limited to,fluidized bed separation according to the present disclosure, screening,hydrocyclonic separation, centrifugal separation, basket type filters,or any of several others. The hydrocyclonic method is appropriate as itis a continuous high-volume method of separation, there are a number ofsuppliers of hardware, the hydrocyclonic separator requires lessmaintenance than basket type filters. A significant shortcoming ofhydrocyclonic separation is that it is not as effective at removing fineand microscopic contaminants as basket type filters or other processes.We note that removal of as much material before the RXCP section of theUCP process reduces the amount of energy required to run the process.

Similarly, as the RXCP section of the UCP is designed to produceprecipitates of several compounds in its output stream, these can beseparated to render them usable for other purposes. Multi-stage basketfilters of progressively finer pore sizes are a good way to achieve thedesired state of cleanliness, although many other means are possible.

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram showing an embodiment of a systemincluding the UCP and a control system according to the presentdisclosure. In the system 500, a number of controlled inputs are fed tothe UCP, and both inputs and outputs are monitored and under the controlof a host computer 550. A feedstock supply 502, such as a tank or othercontainer, delivers feedstock material through a supply line that ismonitored by a feedstock flowmeter 504 which measures a mass flow rateof the input feedstock material through the feedstock supply line.Output from the feedstock flowmeter is delivered to the host computer550 (through a wired or wireless connection). A feedstock supply controlvalve 508 is positioned on the feedstock supply line between theflowmeter 504 and the feedstock input port 110 of UCP 100. The feedstockcontrol valve is also communicatively coupled to the host computer toreceive control signals to open, close or modulate the valve dependingon the operation of the UCP as determined by algorithms executed by thehost computer 550.

Similarly, a fluidizing medium supply 512 delivers fluidizing mediumthrough a supply line that is monitored by a fluidizing medium flowmeter514 which measures a mass flow rate of the fluidizing medium through thefluidizing medium supply line. The fluidizing medium supply can comprisea pressurized liquid and/or gas tank. A fluidizing medium control valve518 is positioned between the fluidizing medium flowmeter 514 andfluidizing medium input port 112 of the UCP 100. Both the fluidizingmedium flowmeter 514 and the fluidizing medium control valve 518 arecommunicatively coupled to the host computer 550, the fluidizing mediumflowmeter 514 providing measurement signals to the host computer 550 andthe reactant supply control valve 528 receiving command signal from thehost computer to regulate the reactant supply depending upon operatingconditions of the UCP. Likewise, a reactant supply 522, which can alsocomprise a tank or other container, delivers reactant material through asupply line that is monitored by a reactant flowmeter 524 which measuresa mass flow rate of the input reactant material. A reactant supplycontrol valve 528 is positioned between the reactant flowmeter 524 andreactant input port 114 of the UCP 100. Both the reactant flowmeter 524and the reactant supply control valve 528 are communicatively coupled tothe host computer 550, the reactant flowmeter 524 providing signalsindicative of the reactant mass flow rate to the host computer 550 andthe reactant supply control valve 528 receiving command signal from thehost computer to regulate the reactant supply depending upon operatingconditions of the UCP. In some implementations, an additional reactantsupply 532 delivers further reactants (which can be different from thereactants from reactant supply 522) into a secondary reactant supplyline that leads into the feedstock supply line via the feedstock controlvalve 504. The feedstock and secondary reactant are thus supplied intothe UCP 100 through the feedstock input line 110. A secondary reactantflowmeter 534 measures the mass flow rate through the secondary reactantsupply line and delivers measurement signals to the host computer 550.The feedstock, fluidizing medium and reactant supplies 502, 512, 522,532 can comprise pipes rather tanks in continuous mode.

The pairs of flowmeters and control valves, 504/508, 514/518 and 524/528can be, but need not necessarily be, implemented in distinct devices. Insome embodiments, both metering and fluid regulation functions can beperformed by a single device using semiconductor technology as known inthe art. The UCP also includes a recirculation loop for the fluidizingmedium (not shown in FIG. 5 ) through which a pump recirculates fluidfrom the top of the main chamber of the reactor/concentrator back to thebottom.

The UCP 100 includes a first analytic output 118 that feeds a sample ofinput materials feed into the proximal end of the UCP 100 to a firstmass spectrometer (not shown in FIG. 2 ). The output from the first massspectrometer is fed to the host computer 250. At the distal end of theUCP there is a second analytic output 180 that feeds a sample of outputproducts to a second mass spectrometer (also not shown). The output fromthe second mass spectrometer is also fed to the host computer 550. Thedistal end of the UCP also includes a main output port 145 for theproducts of reactions and other processes that occur within the UCP aswell as a pressure relief vent 138. An output flowmeter 540 measures aflow rate of the output products and delivers measurement signals to thehost computer 550. The material that exits through the main output port145, which can be the desired product of reactions that are induced byRXCP or FXI operation, can lead to a tank, pipe, or additional processcomponents. When used in batch mode, a single reactor can be used andthe various process steps are implemented sequentially by changingvarious feeds and electrical parameters. When operated in continuousmode, fewer simultaneous operations are used and multiple UCP can becoupled sequentially or otherwise to implement a specific process.

The host computer 550 is also communicatively coupled to pressure relief138 so as to regulate pressure within the UCP. The host computer 550 isconfigured to assess the flow rate information received from the flowmeters as well as the information received from the mass spectrometersas to the composition of the input reactants (all reactants includingthe feedstock) and the output products, to regulate the flow ofmaterials into the UCP via the control valves 504, 514, 524. Forexample, the host computer can determine that reactions are proceedingtoo quickly and execute commands to restrict the flow of input materialsto slow down the reaction rate.

An electrical power supply 545 provides power to the cathode and grid ofthe UCP 100. The host computer 550 also provides control signals tooperate the various components of the RXCP section of the UCP 100 andreceives electrical signals for monitoring the state of the UCP. Forexample, the host computer 550 controls operation of the grid 155 of theRXCP to cause switch the electron gun on or off. When a radioisotopesource is used as in the embodiments (R²CP) described below, theelectrical power supply can be substantially simplified as theionization source does not require to be powered electrically.

When the UCP is used for separation of feedstock materials, typicallybut not necessarily in fluidized bed operation, relatively heaviercomponents exit from the lower output port 140 and lighter componentsexit from the upper output 142 (not shown in FIG. 2 ). Flowmeters (alsonot shown) can also be positioned at the lower and upper separationoutput ports 140, 142 to provide mass flow rate data for the separatedflows to the host computer 550. As a result of the independent nature ofthe control system any feature or combination of features is possiblewith the UCP with the exception of the FXI and RXCP functions which aremutually exclusive.

The UCP described herein provides a number of synergies and advantagesover the standalone components and other types of chemical processors.The increased mixing and contacting of reactants, catalysts, andfeedstock due to the presence of the enhanced fluidized bed results inhigher throughput and more complete reactions per stage thanconventional individual reactors and processors. This is due to the factthat the UCP has increased versatility in that a single system is ableto implement multiple processes. Additionally, the processes can bechanged (e.g., changing operation from fluidized bed mode alone tofluidized by RXCP mode) without extensive changeover work. Put anotherway, the ability to support multiple operating modes in a single devicemeans a single factory can produce multiple products or change processparameters and configurations more readily than with individual stages.

The UCP also has a more compact design and smaller footprint thanconventional reactors of similar capabilities. The compact designenables a simpler electrical system with better coordination. Theaforementioned advantages lead to lower manufacturing costs due to amore universal design requiring fewer variations, and greater economiesof scale can be achieved. The UCP concept as presented herein representsan unanticipated means of achieving process flexibility heretoforeunavailable in traditional chemical processing plants.

With respect to mining industry, and Rare Earth mining and recovery inparticular, the UCP of the present disclosure fulfills a long-soughtneed. The types of operations the UCP can perform eliminate the need fortoxic and contamination wet chemical processes that have been in use forhundreds of years. The impact on both the environment and civilianpopulations located proximate to these mining operations is immediateand enormous. Due to the combination of effective materials separationusing the fluidized bed, elimination of environmental toxins, andabatement using the capabilities of the RXCP to modify or decomposedangerous byproducts, Rare Earth processing need no longer be anactivity that is environmentally hazardous due to the creation of largequantities of toxic liquid waste and can be performed cost-effectivelyin locations and jurisdiction which would previously have beeninfeasible. For the United States, this represents a boon to nationalsecurity, because the UCP can break the near monopoly that a small groupof countries maintain in Rare Earth processing.

It is noted that other mining industries can benefit from the technologyof the current invention. As an example, the oil and gas productionindustries produce vast quantities of waste byproducts that areradioactive and as such, present a serious environmental problem.Essentially the same process described herein for the removal ofradioactive materials from phosphogypsum waste (see Example 2 below) canbe utilized advantageously by the oil and gas industry for essentiallythe same requirement (i.e. removal of radioactive material from aprocess stream (see Example 3 below). As is the gas with phosphogypsum,Radium and Radon are two of the major radioactive components that mustbe remediated.

Radioisotope Embodiments (R²CP)

As described above, the RXCP/FXI section of the UCP requires anelectrical power supply to supply the energy for powering the electrongun that ultimately causes the generation of ionizing radiation. Thereare situations in which it would be useful to operate the UCP inlocations at which the availability of electrical power is limited oreven non-existent. In such situations, a radioisotope source can be usedas the source of energy for ionizing radiation since radioisotopes emitionizing radiation naturally at a known rate, in lieu of theelectrically driven electron gun. Some radioisotopes generate ionizinggamma radiation directly as well as generating other energetic particles(e.g., alpha, and beta) which can induce secondary generation of otherforms of ionizing radiation such as X-rays and secondary electrons. Thefollowing section describes embodiments of a radioisotope based ReactiveChemical Processor, hereinafter referred to as the “R²CP” which is anabbreviation that stands for Reactive Radioactive Chemical Processor(The 2 is a superscript indicating “R squared CP”).

The R²CP has the same functionality as the FXI/RXCP/UCP in that it alsoproduces ionizing radiation, in this case using a radioisotope sourcerather than an electron gun, that can be used to promote chemicalreactions, induce decomposition and sterilization, and for otherapplication. More specifically, the R²CP can be used in a mode analogousto the RXCP mode (including reactants to promote chemical reactions),FXI mode (without reactants, used more for decomposition andsterilization) and can be used in the UCP which includes the other modesas well as the ability to support a fluidized bed. Thus, the R²CP can beused in any and all of the chemical reactions discussed below that aredescribed with reference to the RXCP and FXI modes.

FIG. 12 is a longitudinal cross-section view of an embodiment of theR²CP according to the present disclosure. The R²CP includes a centralpipe through 1010 into which media and reactants flow. Within thecentral pipe 1010 a centrally located, streamlined cylindricalradioactive element 1020 which contains radioactive material isdisposed. The centrally located, streamlined cylindrical radioactiveelement 1020 can be solid or can be formed as a hollow cylinder.Advantageously, for this application, a used nuclear fuel rod from anuclear reactor can be used as centrally located, streamlinedcylindrical radioactive element 1020. This application thereby offers asolution to the main problem attending nuclear generation of electricalenergy, the disposal of hazardous nuclear waste. Fuel rods that are nolonger suited for producing nuclear energy still contain enoughradioactive material for the purposes of the UCP. The fuel rod 1020(either new or used) can be in its original state or it can be choppedup, crushed, or dissolved in acid (the acid is neutralized thereafter).This facilitates casting the material should that be desired. Thecentrally located, streamlined cylindrical radioactive element 1020 ishermetically sealed inside either a stainless or zirconium container.The container of the centrally located, streamlined cylindricalradioactive element 1020 can be pointed to aid in flow stabilization.The centrally located, streamlined cylindrical radioactive element iscoupled to the central pipe 1010 and supported therefrom using a pair ofthree-point suspension fins 1024, 1028 (of which two are shown in thefigure), which also provide flow stabilization due to their fin-shapedcross-section. It is noted that the supporting fins 1024, 1028 can becanted to introduce a turbulent flow condition which would have theeffect of increasing the duration of the irradiation. A biologicalradiation shield 1030 surrounds the central pipe 1010 preventing anyradiation from escaping outside of the device. The shielding 1030 ispreferably be made of lead, but any suitable shielding material can beused, such as concrete, steel, natural rock, or other such materials ofsuitable atomic density. Flanges 1034, 1038 are positioned atlongitudinal ends of the central pipe provide a platform for leak proofconnection to the pipe systems that deliver and remove material from thereactor.

Regardless of the way in which centrally located, streamlinedcylindrical radioactive element is formed, be it solid or hollow,centrally located or circumferentially surrounding the reactants, thesalient factor is that the amount of radioactive material and theionizing emissions it produces are of sufficiently high energy toproduce the required degree of ionization and multiple ionization eventsto provide a sufficient level of ionizing radiation. In someimplementations, the fuel rod 1020 can incorporate particles ofCobalt-60, Thorium 232, Uranium 233, Plutonium 239, Cesium 137, etc. Anyother radioisotope can be used so long as it has a sufficiently longhalf-life and produces sufficiently high energetic particles to achievethe number of ionization events required by the R²CP process.

FIG. 13 illustrates a variation on the embodiment shown in FIG. 12 . Inthis embodiment, the R²CP 1100 includes a removable shielded lid 1110which, when closed, provides a radiation sealed environment. The lid iscoupled to the components of the source assembly and includes liftingrings 1115 that enable the assembly, including centrally located,streamlined cylindrical radioactive element 1120 to be removed andreplaced with a fresh fuel rod. The used fuel is assembly that isremoved from R²CP 1100 is then placed in a shielded container which, inturn, is securely mounted on a vehicle such as a truck, rail car orbarge for transport away from the site to a waste disposal site.

It is noted that in a preferred embodiment, robotic devices are used tocouple to, remove and replace fuel rods in the R²CP. For this purpose,the robotic devices can include features that can engage the liftingrings as well as additional features useful for maintaining the R²CP.The use of robotic devices is important not only due to the safetyconcerns of handling radioactive material, but also be the R²CP isintended for use in remote or even extra-terrestrial locations, such asthe moon, at which human personnel may be absent.

FIG. 14 is a longitudinal cross-section view of another embodiment ofthe R²CP according to the present disclosure. In FIG. 14 , R²CP 1200includes a central pipe 1210 that has a thinned wall section, similarto, and governed by the same design equations as, that in the FXI, RXCP,and UCP. In this embodiment, the radioactive material is not containedinside of the central pipe 1210. Rather, the thinned wall section of thecentral pipe 1210 is circumferentially surrounded by a jacket ofradioactive material 1220. The radioactive material contained in theradioactive jacket 1220 can be cast, machined, or in powdered form. Theradioactive jacket 1220 is surrounded in turn by a biological radiationshield 1230, which, as in the other embodiments, can be made of lead oranother suitable shielding material.

In all embodiments, the shielding is constructed such that theradioactive source contained in the R²CP is hermetically sealed from theenvironment (per NRC regulations), and is designed to limit the emittedradiation to approximately background radiation levels.

It is noted that in either the centrally located radioisotope source orthe circumferentially located radioisotope source, the wall thickness ofthe material isolating the radioisotope source from the material beingprocessed is engineered to reduce the energy level of the gamma rayemission from said isotope source to a predetermined energy appropriateto the diameter of the central pipe and the density of the materialbeing processed. This allows the normally more energetic gamma raysources to operate in the same energy range as the electron gun of theFXI/RXCP/UCP devices. It also generally requires thicker wall sectionsfor the isolating wall which are easier to machine that the sometimesvery thin walls found in the FXI/RXCP/UCP devices. This adjustabilityallows for a wider range of isotope sources to be used. In the case ofthe circumferentially located radioisotope sources, the wall thicknessparameter is determined prior to manufacture based on the use of aspecific preselected radioisotope source. In the embodiment shown inFIG. 14 , where the source is removable, different sources can beinstalled to allow for a wider variety of energies for irradiation or ifa different isotope source is available when replacing the previouslyinstalled source. For most applications, it is important to keep theenergy of the emitted Gamma radiation that reaches the main chamber tobe less than 1.2 MeV, known as the pair production threshold. Radiationabove this level can induce radioactivity, which is a consequence toavoid for most applications.

A possible embodiment of the R²CP is its use in space exploration. Hereit finds uses similar to those previously described as well asconverting minerals on extraterrestrial bodies into other more usefulchemicals or compounds. This can be for construction of structures onsuch extraterrestrial bodies or for commercial exploitation.

It is noted that other mining industries can benefit from the technologyof the current invention. As an example, the oil and gas productionindustries produce vast quantities of waste byproducts that areradioactive and as such, present a serious environmental problem.Essentially the same process described herein for the removal ofradioactive materials from phosphogypsum waste (see Example 2 below) canbe utilized advantageously by the oil and gas industry for essentiallythe same requirement (i.e. removal of radioactive material from aprocess stream (see Example 3 below). As is the gas with phosphogypsum,Radium and Radon are two of the major radioactive components that mustbe remediated.

Sample Reactions: To Illustrate Examples of UCP Operation, SeveralSample Reactions are Presented:

1. Manufacture of Hydrogen Peroxide: To manufacture Hydrogen Peroxide(H₂O₂) in the UCP, purified water is used as the primary feedstock. Inthe RXCP mode, it is ionized and reacted with purified oxygen to produceH₂O₂ in the following reaction:

2H₂O+O₂→2H₂O₂  (2)

{in the presence of X-rays or Gamma Rays}

This reaction can be adjusted to produce any concentration of H₂O₂desired. It is noted that at concentrations above 20%, the H₂O₂ becomesincreasingly unstable to a point where it can explode. For mostconcentrations above 10%, a stabilizer chemical is added to mitigatethis problem.

Traditional methods of production of H₂O₂ involve the use of largequantities of Ammonia, Sulfuric Acid, 2-ethylanthraquinone, ammoniumpersulfate, and others, all of which are toxic and consideredenvironmental pollutants. The UCP/RXCP process eliminates all thesematerials and the downstream pollutants they produce. It requires justwater, oxygen and electricity to make H₂O₂. If desired, and the energyis available, the incoming waste stream can be electrolyzed to producethe required amounts of oxygen with only hydrogen as a byproduct.

2. Manufacture of Phosphoric Acid, and Hydrofluoric Acid fromFluorapatite Ore: The traditional wet chemistry process for achievingthis is:

Ca₅F(PO₄)₃+5H₂SO₄+10H₂O→3H₃PO₄+5CaSO₄·2H₂O+HF  (3)

From this formula, we see that Ca5F(PO4)3 (Fluorapatite) is reacted withSulfuric Acid (H2SO4) and water to produce Phosphoric Acid, HydrofluoricAcid, and Phosphogypsum. Phosphogypsum ((CaSO4·2 H20) is the byproductof this process and is a hydrate of Calcium Sulphate). The end productsof this reaction are then subjected to further separation steps toisolate the individual compounds. To achieve the same end products usinga plasma-based process, Ca5F(PO4)3 is mixed with water and allowed toflow through an RXCP or UCP reactor. There, it is ionized and reactedwith Hydrogen Sulfide gas and Oxygen to produce the same end products.Care must be taken in setting the reactor operating parameters tomaintain the stoichiometry of the process. The reaction becomes: Toachieve the same end products in the UCP, Ca₅F(PO₄)₃ is mixed with waterand allowed to flow through the UCP reactor. There, it is ionized andreacted with Hydrogen Sulfide gas to produce the same end products. Caremust be taken in setting the UCP reactor operating parameters tomaintain the stoichiometry of the process. The reaction becomes:

Ca₅F(PO₄)₃+5H₂S+10H₂O+10O₂→3H₃PO₄+5CaSO₄·2H₂O+HF  (4)

Note that instead of H₂SO₄ being used as a liquid reactant (traditionalprocess), the plasma process uses Hydrogen Sulfide and Oxygen as gaseousreactants which are better suited to the plasma process. In thepreferred embodiment, with the correct choice of operating conditions,it is possible to get the Phosphoric acid to come off as a liquid, thePhosphogypsum to come off as a solid (precipitate), and the HF to comeoff as a gas. This eliminates the need for further process steps. Theadvantage that the UCP brings to this process is that there are no toxicliquid wastes as any unwanted byproducts are given off as gases and canbe destroyed by pyrolysis unit pollution control equipment on theexhaust of the process pumps. This is an incinerator placed in serieswith the exhaust of the process pumps and the building exhaust to theatmosphere. The use of plasma technology is standard in modernsemiconductor processing. It is noted that there are other plasma-basedapproaches to achieve the same end products.3. Separation of Actinides from Fluorapatite or Phosphogypsum:

Fluorapatite rarely occurs by itself. It is normally found incombination with Hydroxyapatite [Ca5(PO₄)3OH], a variety of rare earths(Lanthanides) and radioactive minerals (Actinides), typically Uranium,Radium, and Thorium. Other Actinides are frequently found in smallerquantities as well. It is thus necessary, at some point, to separate theActinides from the Fluorapatite (or Phosphogypsum) and Lanthanides.Depending on local conditions and regulations at the mining site, thisseparation can be done either before or after the Fluorapatite reactiondescribed in #2 (above), but usually it is done before so as to notcreate a large volume of radioactive waste. It is desirable to removeany radioactive materials (Actinides) from Fluorapatite or Phosphogypsum(a byproduct of fertilizer, hydrofluoric Acid, and Phosphoric Acidmanufacturing) so that these products and the residual Phosphogypsum canbe safely used for other purposes. The existing wet chemical processesproduce large amounts of toxic pollutants. In some cases, the use of theUCP eliminates wet chemistry entirely and its associated pollutants whenthe Actinides are not chemically bound to the phosphogypsum. In thiscase, the UCP is used in fluidized bed mode. The Fluorapatite orPhosphogypsum (feedstock, in this specific case) is introduced as a drypowder and fluidized with (typically) air. This causes portions of thefeedstock to rise to the top of the column and the Actinides to fall tothe bottom of the column where they exit the column from the respectiveoutlet ports 140 for the Phosphogypsum and 142 for the Actinides. Whenthe UCP is used in this mode, the separation is accomplished on thebasis of the density of the particles. In cases where the compounds arechemically bound, it is appropriate to use a reactive plasma step beforethe physical separation step to achieve complete separation of theradioactive materials from the feedstock.

There are other means of separating Actinides and Lanthanides fromPhosphogypsum or Fluorapatite using the UCP. Typically, Uranium, Thoriumand Radium are the primary Actinides found in Fluorapatite and thereforePhosphogypsum. One such means involves reacting the Actinide (as aHydrate) with either water and NO (Nitric Oxide, as a gas), or HCL (as agas) to produce:

ACT(OH)₃+3HNO₃→ACT(NO₃)₃+3H₂O ACT(OH)₃+3HCl→ACTCl₃+3H₂O  (5), (6)

where ACT stands for the specific Actinide compound. Alternatively,Uranium or Thorium may be separated out using ammonia and carbon dioxidegases with ammonium hydroxide (aqueous ammonia) as a commerciallysaleable byproduct.

UO₂(OH)₂+3(NH₄)₂CO₃→(NH₄)₄[UO₂(CO₃)₃]+2NH₄OH  (7)

The specific reaction chosen is dependent on the available rawmaterials, which may be used as is or with some degree of preprocessingto adjust both the mechanical and electrical properties of thesematerials.

4. Removal of pharmaceuticals and other organic and biologiccontaminants: A major pollution problem facing most countries is thepresence of pharmaceuticals and other organic chemical contaminants inwater. In this process, water which has, for example, pharmaceuticalproducts contaminating it, (or other organic contaminants), the UCP isrun in the FXI mode. Here the contaminated water is exposed to a highdose of X-radiation. This has the effect of both ionizing the waterwhile simultaneously breaking all the bonds of the organic contaminants(including the pharmaceuticals). All the resulting ions then recombineto their lowest energy states in accordance with the process aspreviously defined in U.S. Pat. No. 8,019,047 “Flash X-ray Irradiator”.The Hydrogen and Oxygen ions also recombine to go back to water. Theresulting water is now free from long chain organic contamination andsterilized as well. The reason that the UCP system (in the FXI or RXCPmodes) is able to achieve this level of ionization and the associateddecomposition is that the incident energy from both the X-rays (or Gammarays in the case of the R²CP) and the secondary electrons generated ismany times that K-shell energy level, the energy level at which theK-shell electrons (and all others) are knocked off the atom. Thisapplies to all organic compounds, biologicals, petrochemicals, andpharmaceuticals. It is noted that the UCP can be run in the RXCP modeand used to add Hydrogen Peroxide (H₂O₂) as previously described to thecontaminated water to further remediate the pollution.

X-Radiation or Gamma radiation, in sufficient quantity, is lethal tobiological organisms by several means, including but not limited to,disruption of DNA by breaking of molecular bonds, inducing geneticdamage, and chemical changes in key biological macromolecules, any ofwhich can lead to the death of the organism. During sterilizationtreatment, the sample of interest is bombarded with high energy X-rays,electrons, or gamma rays at sufficient fluence, which leads to theformation of extremely unstable free radicals, molecular ions andsecondary electrons, as well as X-rays. These radiation products thenreact with nearby molecules to fracture and alter chemical bonds. DNA inparticular is highly sensitive to the damaging effects of radiation andwill break, depolymerize, mutate and alter structure upon exposure toionizing radiation. Incomplete repair of DNA damage ultimately leads toloss of genetic information and cell death. The sensitivity of a givenbiological organism to radiation is given by the decimal reduction dose(D₁₀ value), the dose of radiation which leads to a 10-fold reduction inmicroorganism population.

5. Elimination of Marine Contaminants such as Oil and Chemical Spills,Bacterial and Algae Overgrowths: In this application, the system ismounted on a boat, hovercraft or other type of marine vehicle,preferably a catamaran and there is a large scoop positioned between thebows that can be lowered into the water while the boat is moving. Thescoop directs the contaminated water up through a pipe into the UCPbeing operated in either the FXI mode (simplest form) or the RXCP modewhere oxygen is added to form hydrogen peroxide. In the FXI mode, justradiation is used to decompose any organics, and kill any bacterial orother algae that may be present. In the RXCP mode, both radiation andoxidation are used to remediate and eliminate the contaminant. It isnoted that any fish that pass through the reactor will likely be killedin either process mode. This can be precluded by using a mesh over theinlet to block fish from entering the unit. It is noted that thisimplementation may require periodic cleaning to remove fish and othermaterials caught by the mesh or by sending signals into the water,directed ahead of the advanced vessel to drive the fish away. It isfurther noted that Oxygen is not the only additive that can be used inthis application. Other gases, such as Chlorine, can successfully beused to achieve the same ends.

To implement this application, in addition to the UCP or derivatives, agenerator and high voltage power supply would have to be mounted on theboat. Further, if the boat speed is not above some predefined limit, itwill be necessary to include a pump to ensure that enough water passesthrough the UCP or derivatives. Once through the irradiation device, theprocessed water is dumped off the stern back into the body of water fromwhich it was drawn. It is noted that this method of removal of algalgrowths is not limited to that which float on the surface. The scoop canbe deployed at any desired depth, with due consideration given to thespeed of the vessel through the water and appropriate caution to prevententanglement with underwater obstacles. On-board sonar can be used toprevent entanglement of the scoop with underwater obstacles.

Similarly, in the case of oil and chemical spills, the same apparatus isused. Care must be taken to protect the operators of the vessel if thereare toxic fumes or flammable materials involved.

In the case of very large spills, typically in an ocean, gulf, large bayor sound, etc. a faster craft may be required. This also increases thepower demand as the irradiation system must be run at higher irradiationlevels. In this case, a small jet engine (typically the size used for alarge business jet) coupled to a generator, such as is used by theelectric power industry for peak power generation can be used. Theexhaust generates thrust to move the boat at high speeds, and thegenerator can produce power into the MegaWatt range. This type of motorgenerator is commercially available from several suppliers. A smallerconventional motor and propeller system is also included for low-speedmaneuvering. It is essential that the maneuvering system propeller beable to be feathered to allow for high-speed operation.

It is necessary to provide radiation protection for the operators of theirradiation vessel. This can be in the form of lead or other high atomicnumber shield materials placed so as to block radiation from theirradiation system from hitting the operator. It is noted that when thesystem is not operating there is no radiation hazard to the operator andcrew. Alternatively, the marine vehicle can be remotely operated to putthe operators at a safe distance from the radiation produced by the UCP.

When the R2CP embodiment is used for marine applications the weight thatis eliminated by removing the electron gun, generator and fuel supply isgenerally offset by the added weight of the necessary biologicalshielded need to make the vessel safe for a human operator. The loss ofthe jet propulsion is compensated by inclusion of a larger conventionalengine than would have otherwise been present for low-speed operationand close quarter maneuvering.

It is to be understood that any structural and functional detailsdisclosed herein are not to be interpreted as limiting the systems andmethods, but rather are provided as a representative embodiment orarrangement for teaching one skilled in the art one or more ways toimplement the methods.

It is to be further understood that like numerals in the drawingsrepresent like elements through the several figures, and that not allcomponents or steps described and illustrated with reference to thefigures are required for all embodiments or arrangements.

The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particularembodiments only and is not intended to be limiting. As used herein, thesingular forms “a”, “an” and “the” are intended to include the pluralforms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It willbe further understood that the either of the terms “comprises” or“comprising”, when used in this specification, specify the presence ofstated features, integers, steps, operations, elements, and/orcomponents, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or moreother features, integers, steps, operations, elements, components,and/or groups thereof.

Terms of orientation are used herein merely for purposes of conventionand referencing and are not to be construed as limiting. However, it isrecognized these terms could be used with reference to a viewer.Accordingly, no limitations are implied or to be inferred.

Also, the phraseology and terminology used herein is for the purpose ofdescription and should not be regarded as limiting. The use of“including,” “comprising,” or “having,” “containing,” “involving,” andvariations thereof herein, is meant to encompass the items listedthereafter and equivalents thereof as well as additional items.

The subject matter described above is provided by way of illustrationonly and should not be construed as limiting. Various modifications andchanges can be made to the subject matter described herein withoutfollowing the example embodiments and applications illustrated anddescribed, and without departing from the true spirit and scope of theinvention encompassed by the present disclosure, which is defined by theset of recitations in the following claims and by structures andfunctions or steps which are equivalent to these recitations.

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 14. A method of chemicalprocessing comprising: configuring a reactor vessel for receivingfeedstock, a fluidizing medium and reactants and for supporting afluidized bed; and situating a radioactive element within the vesselthat is operative to emit ionizing radiation in a radiation zone withinthe vessel.
 15. The method of claim 14, wherein the radioactive elementis centrally located in the reactor vessel and streamlined in shape. 16.The method of claim 14, wherein the radioactive element comprises a usedfuel rod obtained from a nuclear facility.
 17. The method of claim 16,further comprising: removing the fuel rod from the vessel via aremovable shielded lid when the ionizing radiation falls below athreshold level; and placing a new fuel rod into the vessel through theremovable shield lid.
 18. The method of claim 14, wherein the reactorvessel includes a wall surrounding an inner chamber, and the radioactiveelement is formed as a jacket that circumferentially surrounds a thinnedlongitudinal section of the wall of the inner chamber.
 19. The method ofclaim 14, wherein the radioactive element is operative to ionizefeedstock and reactants within the radiation zone.
 20. The method ofclaim 14, wherein the fluidized bed is supported while the radioactiveelement emits ionizing radiation.
 21. The method of claim 14, whereinthe reactor vessel is installed on an extraterrestrial body
 22. Themethod of claim 21, further comprising: inputting mineralogicalmaterials found on the extraterrestrial body into the reactor vessel;and subjecting the mineralogic materials to chemical reaction byexposure to reactants and ionizing radiation generated the radioactiveelement.
 23. The method of claim 18, wherein a thickness of thelongitudinal section of the wall that isolates the jacket from the mainchamber is engineered to reduce the energy level of the gamma rayemissions emitted from the jacket to a predetermined energy appropriateto a diameter of the main chamber and a density of the material intendedto be processed.
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